Can I Becomr a Lucid Dreamer Again

Introduction

A lucid dream is a dream in which the dreamer is aware that he or she is dreaming and can often consciously influence dream content (LaBerge, 1985). Sleep laboratory studies show that lucid dreaming usually occurs during REM sleep (LaBerge, 1990), yet, in some cases lucid dreams have likewise been found during NREM sleep (Stumbrys and Erlacher, 2012). Lucid dreams are linked with higher levels of automatic nervous system activity (LaBerge et al., 1986), but also with more pronounced H-reflex suppression (Brylowski et al., 1989). Neurophysiological studies institute increased activation during REM lucid dreaming especially in frontal and frontolateral regions but besides in temporoparietal regions as well every bit an functional connectivity between those areas (Voss et al., 2009; Dresler et al., 2012; Baird et al., 2018). This specific dream state offers many opportunities to study consciousness processes (Baird et al., 2019) or psychophysiology in general (LaBerge et al., 2018).

In the full general population, studies suggest that near a half of the full general population had a lucid dream at to the lowest degree one time in their lifetime and about one out of v people are having them at least once a month (Schredl and Erlacher, 2011; Saunders et al., 2016). Though, only 1% of full general population experience lucid dreams oft – several times a week (Schredl and Erlacher, 2011). Lucid dreams can start spontaneously, but nearly people applied different techniques to larn who to lucid dream (cf. Stumbrys et al., 2014).

In the literature different techniques have been proposed to increase the frequency of lucid dreams. In a systematic review past Stumbrys et al. (2012) in total 35 studies were identified which tested consecration techniques empirically. Out of the 35 studies eleven were conducted as sleep laboratory studies whereas the other 24 were done equally field experiments – in some cases with depression methodological quality. While none of the induction techniques were verified to induce lucid dreams reliably, consistently and with a high success rate, some methods showed to be promising. 1 of such methods is a combination of Mnemonic Induction of Lucid Dreams (MILD) in combination with special slumber-wake-patterns, eastward.g., when a person wakes upwards in early morning hours and later on a certain flow of time goes dorsum to bed and takes a nap, known every bit wake-up-back-to-bed (WBTB).

Mnemonic consecration of lucid dreams is a cognitive technique based on prospective retention preparation and applied upon awakening from a dream (Stumbrys and Erlacher, 2014). The technique involves the dreamer rehearsing the dream and visualizing becoming lucid in it while setting an intention to remember to recognize that 1 in dreaming. LaBerge (1980) established MILD when working on his doctoral dissertation. At the baseline, when he did non apply whatsoever induction technique, LaBerge had less than one lucid dream per calendar month. When he developed MILD, it increased his lucid dreams frequency to 18–26 lucid dreams per calendar month and up to four lucid dreams per night. Further show for the effectiveness of Balmy comes from x studies (Kueny, 1985; LaBerge, 1988; Levitan, 1989, 1990a,b, 1991a; Edelstein and LaBerge, 1992; Levitan et al., 1992; LaBerge et al., 1994; Levitan and LaBerge, 1994) whereas all of them were conducted by LaBerge's research group (Stumbrys et al., 2012).

When using Balmy later an awakening in early morning hours (i.e., in a combination with WBTB), lucid dreams seem to exist much more likely during following naps than the dark before (Levitan et al., 1992). Furthermore it was shown that when using with MILD, it is about effective to apply WBTB for a menses of xxx–120 min (LaBerge et al., 1994). The shorter periods of wakefulness, such as taking a nap later on 10 min (LaBerge et al., 1994) or immediately later awakening (Levitan, 1991a) are less constructive for Balmy exercise. The same is true for longer periods of wakefulness, such equally taking a nap afterward four h (Levitan, 1990a) or 14–17 h after the bed time (Levitan et al., 1992).

While all previous MILD + WBTB studies were conducted only as field experiments, we carried out a sleep laboratory study to investigate the effectiveness of this combined technique. The study included four experiments. In the start experiment, we tested the effectiveness of MILD with 60 min of WBTB with sports students who attended a seminar on sleep and dreams. In the 2nd experiment, to eliminate possible biases due to the seminar attendance, the same procedure was repeated with people who did not attend the seminar. In the third experiment, a shorter time interval of sleep interruption was introduced (30 min). Finally, in the 4th experiment in contrast to dreamwork that has been accomplished during the catamenia of enkindling in previous experiments, two alternative activities were tested: a cognitive activity (reading) and a balancing exercise (Wii video game).

Materials and Methods

Participants

Table 1 shows the description of the samples for the iv conditions of the slumber laboratory study. In the condition 1, three, and iv, the participants were students from Heidelberg University and took role in a weekly seminar well-nigh "Sleep and Sports" at the Found of Sports and Sports Sciences given by one of the authors (DE). Participants for the experiment therefore were self-selected by their involvement in dreams and lucid dream research. No exclusion criteria were fabricated. Participation in the laboratory written report was part of the seminar requirement, however, participation was not obligatory because alternative course credits could be received. Most of the participants of the second condition were too voluntary students from Heidelberg University, but who did not attend the seminar. At the fourth dimension of data drove (2010–2011), ethical review and approval was non required for the study on man participants in accordance with the local legislation and institutional requirements. Participants provided written informed consent before the beginning of the report and the experiment was conducted in accord with the Declaration of Helsinki [Statistics transferred to Tabular array i].

Table i. Participants characteristics.

Dream Recall and Lucid Dream Recall Frequency

The participants completed a dream questionnaire (cf. Schredl et al., 2014). In this questionnaire dream call up frequency was measured on a seven-point rating calibration ranging from "0 - never" to "vi - almost every morning." Re-test reliability for this scale is high (r = 0.85; Schredl, 2004). Units of mornings per calendar week were calculated past recoding the scale to their grade ways (0 = 0, 1 = 0.125, two = 0.25, 3 = 0.625, 4 = 1.0, 5 = 3.5, 6 = half dozen.five). Lucid dream retrieve frequency was measured on an viii-point rating calibration ranging from "0 -never" to "7 - several times a calendar week." Re-examination reliability for this scale is loftier (r = 0.89; Stumbrys et al., 2013a). Units of mornings per months were calculated past recoding the scale to their class ways (0 = 0, 1 = 0.042, two = 0.083, 3 = 0.25, iv = 1.0, 5 = 2.5, six = four.0, 7 = eighteen). A definition was provided to ensure a clear understanding of lucid dreaming: "In lucid dreams, ane has awareness that one is dreaming during the dream. Thus information technology is possible to wake up deliberately, or to influence the action of the dream actively, or to observe the course of the dream passively" (for the importance of a articulate definition, see Snyder and Gackenbach, 1988).

Polysomnography

In all experiments, polysomnography (PSG) was conducted to register sleep stages. PSG recording included electroencephalogram (EEG: F3, F4, C3, C4, CZ, O2, O1), electroocculogram (EOG), submental electromyogram (EMG), and electrocardiogram (ECG). EEG electrodes were placed co-ordinate to the international Ten-Twenty system (Jasper, 1958). A XLTEK Trex longtime EEG recorder was used to record sleep data with a DC amplifier and sample rate of 250 Hz. Sleep stages were manually scored according to the AASM criteria (Iber et al., 2007).

Mnemonic Consecration of Lucid Dreams (MILD)

Mnemonic induction of lucid dreams is based on the ability to call back and perform future actions (i.e., prospective memory). It works all-time after a spontaneous awakening with dream recall. From this dream different events or objects that are highly improbable or bizarre should be identified and could thus be used to recognize the experience as a dream (and then-called dream signs). Afterward, while lying in bed and returning to sleep, the individual has to visualize the dream and upon encountering a dream sign imagine oneself becoming lucid and set an intention to call up: "Next time I'm dreaming, I volition remember to recognize that I'thousand dreaming" (LaBerge et al., 1994; Stumbrys and Erlacher, 2014). For the experimental nighttime Balmy was introduced to the participants for the get-go time. The technique was embedded in the wake period of the WBTB procedure and was divided into three parts: (1) writing the dream report; (ii) finding dream signs; (iii) practicing MILD.

Procedure

Before the sleep laboratory night, participants received information about the report night and the goals of the study. All steps of the procedure were explained in a written form and participants provided written informed consent.

In weather condition one–three, the participants spent a single night and in condition 4 the participants spent two non-consecutive nights in a dark and repose room at the Plant of Sports and Sports Sciences (Heidelberg Academy) with continuous PSG recording. They arrived at 9:00 pm and the experimenter familiarized them with the room and setting. Then the participants prepared themselves for the dark and all electrodes were attached by the experimenter. After the recording signals were checked, the experimenter explained to the participants the definition of a lucid dream and trained them in left-right-left-right (LRLR) center movements to indicate a possible lucid dream (cf. LaBerge, 1990). The LRLR betoken was trained in front of the recording screen to give the feedback to the participants. The participants were also instructed about the awakening later on about 6 h of sleep (see below). The night procedure was divided into four parts (Come across Effigy 1).

Effigy 1. The nighttime procedure divided into ii parts.

Starting time Part of the Night

The outset part of the dark lasted at to the lowest degree 5 h and 40 min subsequently sleep onset. And then the participants were awakened from the subsequent REM catamenia following 10–15 min of uninterrupted REM sleep. If all subsequent uninterrupted REM slumber was shorter than 10 min, the participant was awakened following the adjacent REM period after vii h from sleep onset, even if it was shorter than 10 min. Further, if a LRLR bespeak was observed on the sleep recording, the participant was also awakened (3 epochs after the last indicate).

REM Awakening

Via intercom system, the participants were called by their proper name until responded. Then they were asked to written report whatsoever mental content that was in their heed before enkindling. If the participant did not call back any slumber mentation immediately, he or she was given ii min to remember about it and try to recall it. Farther, the participants were asked if in the dream they were enlightened that they are dreaming (self-rating of lucidity) and if they gave a LRLR center-indicate. All conversations were recorded via a voice recorded.

Wake Menstruation

After awakening the wake period followed. In Experiments 1 and ii, the participants were kept awake for threescore min. During this time menstruation, firstly, the participants were given a dream report sheet and a pen to write down the dream that was but verbally reported (or some vivid before dream if nothing was recalled). Then they were given an information sheet about the dream signs (incongruous elements of a dream indicating that this might exist a dream, east.g., an odd grade, action, context) and asked to go through their dream report and place all possible dream signs. Lastly, the participants were given a clarification of Balmy technique and asked to practice information technology with using the present dream written report and identified dream signs. To ensure the participants' clear understanding of dream signs and MILD technique, they were asked to explicate both the identified dream signs and Balmy technique to the experimenter (and corrected if necessary). The participants in Experiment 3 did exactly the same process simply with a shorter elapsing (30 min in total; about 10 min for each pace).

The participants in Experiment 4 were besides kept awake for 60 min and, in a randomized and balanced order, one night were given a volume to read for 60 min (fiction, a collection of short stories, "Hauptsache von Herzen" by Brigitte Sinhuber), while on the other night they played a series of Wii video games that involved body balancing (ski-slalom, snowboarding, etc.) for 60 min. Later on the wake period finished, the participants returned to bed. The participants in Experiments i–iii were instructed to keep practicing Balmy while falling asleep, whereas the participants in Experiment four were simply instructed to recognize that they dreaming the side by side time they dream.

2nd Role of the Night (Back-to-Bed)

Upon returning to bed, the participants were farther awakened post-obit these atmospheric condition: (1) 15 min of uninterrupted REM sleep afterwards 3 h; (2) end of a shorter than fifteen min REM menstruum afterwards four h; (3) after observing a LRLR eye-signaling on the slumber recording (3 epochs after the final betoken). The awakening was made in the same way equally earlier (see higher up).

All recorded dream reports were transcribed, randomly permutated and scored past a blinded judge for lucidity on a iii-point scale (0 – no testify of a lucid dream, 1 – possible indications of a lucid dream, 2 – clear indication of a lucid dream), which was shown to accept a good interrater agreement (Stumbrys et al., 2013b).

Benchmark for Successful Lucid Dream Induction

A successful induction of a lucid dream could exist shown by three types of proofs (meet too Schmid and Erlacher, 2020): (one) self-rating of lucidity; (2) an external rater judged the dream report every bit either with articulate or possible indications of lucidity; (3) the participant reported LRLR eye signaling and the eye signals can be unambiguously identified on the sleep recording during REM. For the "strict" criterion, all 3 criteria must be met. For the "loose" criterion, (1) and (2) were considered as sufficient.

Statistical Assay

Because this was an exploratory study, the primary focus is on descriptive statistics.

Results

Sleep Data

The WBTB sleep data for all conditions is provided in Table 2. Of all 62 experimental nights in the present report, ane participant (Experiment 2) was not able to fall asleep after WBTB. The average WBTB sleep latency for all experimental conditions was 31.5 ± 26.0 min. In 53 occasions (85.5%) the participants had REM sleep with an average latency of 42.1 ± 24.vii min later on slumber onset. Notably, one participant (Experiment two) reported a lucid dream after a nap without REM sleep.

Table two. Sleep information for the second half of the night.

Dream Reports

In total, 115 dream reports were collected during the experimental night: 60 from the first office of the night and 55 from the 2nd role of the night. The dream think charge per unit for the first office of the night was 95% (from 63 REM awakenings) and for the second part of the night was 76% (from 63 morning naps). The dream reports had an average length of 120.three ± 121.3 words.

Induction of Lucid Dreams

In full, the participants reported lucid dreams during xx forenoon naps post-obit awakening (32.3%). Farther, on four occasions (6.5%) they were unsure if they were dreaming or not. On xiv occasions (22.six%) no dreams were recalled and on 24 occasions only non-lucid dreams were reported (38.vii%). The guess rated 24 dream reports equally without testify of lucid dreaming (exactly the same ones as the dreamers themselves), 22 dream reports as with articulate indications of lucid dreaming (19 of which the participants rated as lucid and 3 as ambiguously lucid) and ii dream reports equally with possible indications of lucid dreaming (one which was rated by a participant equally lucid and one as ambiguously lucid).

Further, on 14 occasions (22.6%) the participants reported that they produced a LRLR heart indicate to ostend their lucidity. In nine cases LRLR centre signals were clearly observed on the PSG recording to occur during unequivocal REM slumber; in three cases the indicate and/or sleep stage was ambiguous and in ii cases in that location were no signs of prearranged eye-signaling on the slumber recording. On five occasions (8.1%), the participants reported that they are unsure if they produced a LRLR eye betoken. In two of those cases there were unequivocal signals during REM sleep observed on the sleep recording, one case was cryptic and in 2 other cases no prearranged middle-signaling was observed. On further 5 occasions (8.1%), the participants reported that they did not requite the signal despite the fact that they were aware of dreaming during the dream. The numbers of lucid dreams co-ordinate to both "strict" and "loose" criteria in different conditions are presented in Table three.

Tabular array 3. Number of lucid dreams in different weather.

Condition ane – hour Plus Balmy

Six out of 11 participants (54.five%) reported to have a lucid dream in the nap following awakening. All these dreams were verified as lucid past an external estimate who scored dream reports. Iv participants reported that they produced a LRLR signal (three signals were successfully verified on the PSG recording to occur during unambiguous REM slumber; one signal was cryptic). Two other participants were unsure if they produced a betoken (one indicate, nonetheless, was verified on the PSG; other betoken was cryptic).

Condition 2 – 60 minutes Plus Mild

Eight out of fifteen participants (53.3%) reported a lucid dream during the nap. All these dreams were verified as lucid by an external judge who scored dream reports. Six participants reported that they produced a LRLR signal and four of these signals were successfully verified on the PSG recording. In one example, the indicate on the PSG recording was ambiguous, in the other case the signal was absent-minded and at that place were no REM slumber during the nap flow.

Condition 3 – thirty Minutes Plus Mild

5 out of 14 participants (35.7%) reported a lucid dream during the nap and two of them gave a LRLR point (verified on the slumber recording). Two others did not give a signal and i was awakened on making a bespeak. Ane participant reported to make a point but was uncertain if he was dreaming and corresponding PSG recording showed high EEG alpha levels.

Control Conditions

In the 60 min plus reading status, only one participant reported a lucid dream, merely did non make a LRLR signal. One other participant was uncertain if he was dreaming and fabricated a indicate, however, the signal was verified on the PSG recording.

In the 60 min plus Wii condition, ii participants were unsure if they had a lucid dream. Ane of them reported a dream in a dream and told that he made a signal, the other participant was unsure about signaling. No signals were visible on the PSG recording in both cases.

Taken together conditions one–4, no gender differences were found for successfully induced lucid dreams with respect neither to the loose (Chi2 = 0.80; p = 0.37) nor strict criterion (Chi2 = 0.46; p = 0.fifty). Furthermore, successful participants in having a lucid dream (loose criterion) tended to have a higher baseline dream think frequency and lucid dream think frequency compared to the unsuccessful participants, however, this tendency was not statistically significant (p = 0.fifteen and p = 0.x, respectively).

Discussion

The findings of the present study show that by using a combination of WBTB and MILD techniques, lucid dreams tin can exist effectively induced in people who are not selected for their lucid dream abilities. According to the present results, the virtually effective arroyo is to use one h WBTB fourth dimension, during which dreamwork is carried out and Mild is practiced. Nether such circumstances, almost a one-half of the participants written report a lucid dream and nearly one out of 3 participants have a lucid dream which could be objectively verified by volitional eye signaling on the slumber recording. Shorter WBTB durations might be less beneficial, besides as if different activities than dreamwork are used during the WBTB catamenia.

The achieved success rates are quite high, if compared to other sleep laboratory lucid dream induction studies with unselected student samples. For example, in a study past Paul et al. (2014), the success rates for visual and tactile stimulation were only 0–7.four%. Our success rates resemble the ones from WBTB + MILD field studies with lucid dreamers past LaBerge, Levitan and their colleagues (Levitan, 1990b, 1991a,b; Levitan et al., 1992; LaBerge et al., 1994). While sleep laboratory and field studies tin not exist directly comparable (for example, in the onetime, a researcher can awaken the participant from REM sleep to increment the chances for successful dream retrieve), this suggests that WBTB + Mild tin finer practical not only by frequent lucid dreamers but also by exceptional or non-lucid dreamers. In the first our experiment, out of four participants who never had a lucid dream before, two became lucid in a single night at the sleep laboratory (2 out of seven in the second experiment, but four others did not recall any dream content).

The duration of WBTB period seems to be an of import factor in the effectiveness of technique. Previous research showed that with Mild, the virtually efficient periods of WBTB are of 30–120 min (Levitan, 1990a; Levitan et al., 1992; LaBerge et al., 1994). The findings of the present study indicate that WBTB for one h might exist more efficient than a shorter period of xxx min. The similar finding was reported by LaBerge et al. (1994), which suggests that 1 h of wakefulness might exist the nigh optimal time for this technique.

2 recent sleep laboratory studies applying an acoustic cue during the induction technique of the WBTB-image might shed some calorie-free on the timing result. In the first study lucid dreams were successfully induced in a single nap session by cueing beeping tones with cognitive grooming (Carr et al., 2020). The session elapsing was twenty min and performed in the morning time either at 7:thirty am or 11:00 am. The results showed that 50% of the cued participants produced a bespeak-verified lucid dream. In the 2nd study a combination of music (eastward.1000., "Boléro" by Maurice Ravel) with reality testing was practical in 1 h session which was embedded in a WBTB-protocol at 4.5 h after sleep onset (Schmid and Erlacher, 2020). In contrast, just fourteen% of the participants became lucid and none of those lucid dreams were verified by LRLR eye signal. Thus, it seems that not but the duration of the session simply besides the hours of previous slumber might exist important to enhance the chances to feel a lucid dream.

In contrast to the proposition by LaBerge (1980) that "it is not the detail activity (carried out during the period of wakefulness), merely the alert wakefulness that facilitates lucid dreaming during subsequent sleep" (p. 1042), the present findings indicate that the action does thing. In our fourth study, where two culling activities for dreamwork were used (reading and a balancing task), the success rates were markedly lower. A previous report by Leslie and Ogilvie (1996) showed that increased vestibular activation can facilitate dream lucidity, however, in the present study nosotros found no divergence betwixt the balancing job and the reading status. In comparison to reading, the balancing exercise had more than agonizing effects on subsequent sleep (increased sleep latency and reduced sleep efficiency). While American Academy of Sleep Medicine (AASM, 2014) lists a vigorous practise close to bedtime as one of the factors that tin can increase arousal and disturb sleep, empirical findings are inconsistent (e.g., Stutz et al., 2018). From the present findings, dreamwork (writing downward the dream, identifying dream signs, practicing MILD) can be recommended as the optimal activeness during the WBTB menses.

The catamenia of wakefulness in early on morning hours did non disturb subsequent sleep: In only one case (1.half dozen%) the participant was not able to fall asleep after WBTB and in near cases (85.5%) the participants had REM sleep. Interestingly, one participant reported a lucid dream after a nap without REM sleep. While at that place were no middle-signaling in this case, this might accept been an NREM lucid dream, which were also infrequently observed before (Stumbrys and Erlacher, 2012). The participants in the Experiment two had longer slumber latency than the participants in the same condition in the Experiment one. This might be explained by the fact that the Experiment 2 participants in contrast to other groups, did not attend the seminar and therefore might have had higher anxiety/stress level (eastward.chiliad., due to unfamiliar environs, procedures) which might have resulted in poorer their slumber quality. Yet, the participants in the Experiment 2 accomplished very similar lucidity success rates as the ones in the Experiment 1, which suggests that the effectiveness of the present induction method was not influenced by the participation in the seminar (e.1000., interest in dreams and/or lucid dreams) and the findings might be more than generalizable.

Some methodological bug take to be acknowledged. One of the main challenges in all lucid dream induction studies is what to consider a valid criterion for successful induction (meet Stumbrys et al., 2012 for farther discussion on this signal). In the present study, nosotros employed different measures: the dreamer's self-written report if he/she was lucid and made a LRLR eye movements and the external ratings for dream lucidity based on the dream report and unambiguous LRLR eye signaling during REM sleep. While in the most cases the cocky-ratings and the external ratings corresponded, on a few occasions they diverged. On 3 occasions the judge rated dream every bit clearly lucid whereas the dreamer was unsure if the dream was lucid or not and on i occasion the judge rated a dream every bit uncertainly lucid whereas the dreamer considered the dream as lucid. Regarding dream lucidity, in such cases nosotros followed the self-report of the dreamer, as the dream lucidity might not exist easily inferred from a dream report if it is non explicitly mentioned (e.g., "I became lucid" or "I realized this is a dream"). Yet, if the dreamer was unsure if he was lucid in a dream or awake or if he/she made a LRLR centre signal, simply the signal was unambiguously present during REM sleep, we likewise considered this equally a lucid dream. Our previous enquiry (Stumbrys et al., 2014) showed that lucid dreamers quite often are not able to recall their previous waking intentions in lucid dreams and successfully execute them (nearly often due to hindrances with the dream environment or a premature enkindling). While unambiguous centre-signaling on the slumber recording and confirmatory dream study can be considered equally the most valid bear witness for the confirmation of lucid dreaming, information technology might not be advisable to disqualify completely those dreams in which a person was lucid but, for example, forgot to signal or was awakened during the signaling. The conventional minimal criterion for the definition of lucid dreaming is merely awareness of dreaming during dreaming (see Stumbrys et al., 2012), while eye-signaling involves besides elements of waking memory retrieval and dream body control. Therefore we think it is useful to innovate two aforementioned types of criteria: loose – for practiced-validated self-reported experience, and strict – for its objective external validation.

Some further limitations should exist acknowledged. Fifty-fifty though 51 participants were included in the report, the sample sizes across the groups are rather minor. Indeed, this is one of the reasons, why the results are of descriptive nature. Nonetheless, the number of well-nigh 50% of participants who successful induced a lucid dream within a single sleep laboratory night provides a good reference to what might be a good consecration charge per unit in future studies. Furthermore, information technology should be mentioned that that only i independent judge rated the dream reports, but this was in high accord with the cocky-ratings of the participants. Finally, no adaptation night have been done. Therefore, the so-called showtime dark effect might have possible effects on the REM-NREM sleep cycles, e.grand., reducing or delaying REM sleep (Agnew et al., 1966).

To summarize, the present study showed that past using a combination of WBTB and Balmy, lucid dreams tin be effectively induced in people who are not selected for their lucid dream abilities. Future studies should focus on the fourth dimension of practicing MILD and on combining WBTB with other cognitive techniques (like reality testing) to check their influence on lucid dream consecration.

Information Availability Statement

The datasets generated for this study are available on request to the corresponding author.

Ethics Statement

Ethical review and approving was non required for the written report on human participants in accordance with the local legislation and institutional requirements. The patients/participants provided their written informed consent to participate in this study.

Author Contributions

Both authors listed have fabricated a substantial, direct and intellectual contribution to the work, and canonical it for publication.

Disharmonize of Interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of whatever commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

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Source: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01383/full

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